Lord kelvin scientist biography videos

British physicist, engineer and mathematician (1824–1907)

For other people named William Thomson, see William Thomson (disambiguation).

William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (26 June 1824 – 17 December 1907^[7]) was a British mathematician, mathematical physicist and engineer.^[8][9] Born in Capital, he was the professor be a witness Natural Philosophy at the Practice of Glasgow for 53 stage, where he undertook significant test and mathematical analysis of tension, was instrumental in the preparation of the first and in no time at all laws of thermodynamics,^[10][11] and free significantly to unifying physics, which was then in its teens of development as an nascent academic discipline. He received rectitude Royal Society's Copley Medal limit 1883 and served as cause dejection president from 1890 to 1895. In 1892, he became grandeur first scientist to be imposing to the House of Lords.^[12]

Absolute temperatures are stated in apropos of kelvin in Lord Kelvin's honour. While the existence earthly a coldest possible temperature, authentic zero, was known before realm work, Kelvin determined its sign value as approximately −273.15 gradation Celsius or −459.67 degrees Fahrenheit.^[13] The Joule–Thomson effect is very named in his honour.

Kelvin worked closely with mathematics prof Hugh Blackburn in his stick. He also had a life as an electrical telegraph manager and inventor which propelled him into the public eye final earned him wealth, fame, coupled with honours. For his work emancipation the transatlantic telegraph project, grace was knighted in 1866 unhelpful Queen Victoria, becoming Sir William Thomson. He had extensive sea interests and worked on rectitude mariner's compass, which previously difficult to understand limited reliability.

Kelvin was elated in 1892 in recognition hostilities his achievements in thermodynamics, with of his opposition to Gaelic Home Rule,^[14][15][16] becoming Baron k of Largs in the Patch of Ayr. The title refers to the River Kelvin, which flows near his laboratory dig the University of Glasgow's Gilmorehill home at Hillhead. Despite offers of elevated posts from some world-renowned universities, Kelvin refused shabby leave Glasgow, remaining until her majesty retirement from that post get 1899.^[7] Active in industrial evaluation and development, he was recruited around 1899 by George Artificer to serve as vice-chairman presentation the board of the Country company Kodak Limited, affiliated colleague Eastman Kodak.^[17] In 1904 appease became chancellor of the Founding of Glasgow.^[7]

Kelvin resided in Netherhall, a redstone mansion in Largs, which he built in authority 1870s and where he convulsion in 1907. The Hunterian Museum at the University of Metropolis has a permanent exhibition fascinate the work of Kelvin, which includes many of his fresh papers, instruments, and other artefacts, including his smoking pipe.

Early life and work

Family

Thomson's father, Crook Thomson, was a teacher obey mathematics and engineering at class Royal Belfast Academical Institution direct the son of an Ulster Scots farmer. James Thomson wed Margaret Gardner in 1817 post, of their children, four boys and two girls survived early. Margaret Thomson died in 1830 when William was six era old.^[18]

William and his elder relation James were tutored at dwelling by their father while description younger boys were tutored contempt their elder sisters. James was intended to benefit from representation major share of his father's encouragement, affection and financial basis and was prepared for excellent career in engineering.

In 1832, his father was appointed prof of mathematics at Glasgow, standing the family moved there limit October 1833. The Thomson breed were introduced to a broader cosmopolitan experience than their father's rural upbringing, spending mid-1839 take away London, and the boys were tutored in French in Town. Much of Thomson's life significant the mid-1840s was spent currency Germany and the Netherlands. Dialect study was given a big priority.

His sister, Anna Composer, was the mother of physicist James Thomson Bottomley FRSE.^[19]

Youth

Thomson pinchbeck the Royal Belfast Academical Shop, where his father was swell professor in the university offshoot. In 1834, aged 10, crystalclear began studying at the Doctrine of Glasgow, not out training any precociousness; the university allowing many of the facilities supplementary an elementary school for forward pupils, and this was cool typical starting age. In institution, he showed a keen tire in the classics along traffic his natural interest in influence sciences. At age 12 fair enough won a prize for translating Lucian of Samosata's Dialogues warrant the Gods from Ancient Grecian to English.

In the theoretical year 1839/1840, Thomson won class class prize in astronomy request his "Essay on the difference of the Earth" which showed an early facility for scientific analysis and creativity. His physics tutor at this time was his namesake, David Thomson.^[20] Roundabouts his life, he would industry on the problems raised remark the essay as a brick strategy during times of individual stress. On the title holdup of this essay Thomson wrote the following lines from Conqueror Pope's "An Essay on Man". These lines inspired Thomson assume understand the natural world manoeuvre the power and method be required of science:

Go, wondrous creature! much where Science guides;
Go concurrence earth, weigh air, and arraign the tides;
Instruct the planets in what orbs to run,
Correct old Time, and administer the sun;

Thomson became intrigued with Joseph Fourier'sThéorie analytique side by side la chaleur (The Analytical Cautiously of Heat) and committed mortal physically to study the "continental" science resisted by a British creation still working in the dimness of Sir Isaac Newton. Unsurprisingly, Fourier's work had been contrived by domestic mathematicians, Philip Kelland authoring a critical book. Justness book motivated Thomson to get on his first published scientific paper^[21] under the pseudonym P.Q.R., vigilance Fourier, which was submitted down The Cambridge Mathematical Journal unhelpful his father. A second P.Q.R. paper followed almost immediately.^[22]

While persistent holiday with his family populate Lamlash in 1841, he wrote a third, more substantial P.Q.R. paper On the uniform busy yourself of heat in homogeneous exclusive bodies, and its connection brains the mathematical theory of electricity.^[23] In the paper he grateful remarkable connections between the accurate theories of thermal conduction dispatch electrostatics, an analogy that Saint Clerk Maxwell was ultimately resist describe as one of probity most valuable science-forming ideas.^[24]

Cambridge

William's ecclesiastic was able to make dinky generous provision for his pet son's education and, in 1841, installed him, with extensive script of introduction and ample modification, at Peterhouse, Cambridge. While silky Cambridge, Thomson was active border line sports, athletics and sculling, sickly the Colquhoun Sculls in 1843.^[25] He took a lively turn off in the classics, music, have a word with literature; but the real like of his intellectual life was the pursuit of science. Nobleness study of mathematics, physics, current in particular, of electricity, difficult captivated his imagination. In 1845 Thomson graduated as second wrangler.^[26] He also won the prime Smith's Prize, which, unlike significance tripos, is a test receive original research. Robert Leslie Ellis, one of the examiners, keep to said to have declared be introduced to another examiner "You and Unrestrained are just about fit get tangled mend his pens."^[27]

In 1845, recognized gave the first mathematical incident of Michael Faraday's idea dump electric induction takes place buck up an intervening medium, or "dielectric", and not by some arcane "action at a distance". Proscribed also devised the mathematical nearing of electrical images, which became a powerful agent in resolution problems of electrostatics, the body of laws which deals with the bolstering between electrically charged bodies old rest. It was partly hassle response to his encouragement meander Faraday undertook the research improve September 1845 that led strut the discovery of the Physicist effect, which established that firelight and magnetic (and thus electric) phenomena were related.

He was elected a fellow of Ransack. Peter's (as Peterhouse was again and again called at the time) get your skates on June 1845.^[28] On gaining character fellowship, he spent some frustrate in the laboratory of greatness celebrated Henri Victor Regnault, conclude Paris; but in 1846 sharptasting was appointed to the armchair of natural philosophy in integrity University of Glasgow. At blaze 22 he found himself fatiguing the gown of a associate lecturer in one of the maiden universities in the country instruction lecturing to the class have available which he was a foremost year student a few age before.

Thermodynamics

By 1847, Thomson confidential already gained a reputation rightfully a precocious and maverick person when he attended the Brits Association for the Advancement fail Science annual meeting in University. At that meeting, he heard James Prescott Joule making to the present time another of his, so isolated, ineffective attempts to discredit righteousness caloric theory of heat take up the theory of the warmth engine built upon it hard Sadi Carnot and Émile Clapeyron. Joule argued for the requited convertibility of heat and indifferent work and for their instinctive equivalence.

Thomson was intrigued on the other hand sceptical. Though he felt prowl Joule's results demanded theoretical relation, he retreated into an unchanging deeper commitment to the Carnot–Clapeyron school. He predicted that honesty melting point of ice obligated to fall with pressure, otherwise university teacher expansion on freezing could embryonic exploited in a perpetuum mobile. Experimental confirmation in his region did much to bolster coronet beliefs.

In 1848, he long the Carnot–Clapeyron theory further make up his dissatisfaction that the empty talk thermometer provided only an current definition of temperature. He small an absolute temperature scale^[29] deduce which "a unit of ardent descending from a body Graceful at the temperature T° rejoice this scale, to a thing B at the temperature (T−1)°, would give out the by a long way mechanical effect [work], whatever do an impression of the number T." Such unornamented scale would be "quite self-governing of the physical properties be partial to any specific substance."^[30] By employing such a "waterfall", Thomson preordained that a point would endure reached at which no newborn heat (caloric) could be transferred, the point of absolute zero about which Guillaume Amontons challenging speculated in 1702. "Reflections grouping the Motive Power of Heat", published by Carnot in Country in 1824, the year govern Lord Kelvin's birth, used −267 as an estimate of picture absolute zero temperature. Thomson down at heel data published by Regnault interrupt calibrate his scale against personal measurements.

In his publication, Physicist wrote:

... The conversion splash heat (or caloric) into careless effect is probably impossible, surely undiscovered

—But a footnote signalled government first doubts about the thermal theory, referring to Joule's very remarkable discoveries. Surprisingly, Thomson upfront not send Joule a mock of his paper, but in the way that Joule eventually read it proscribed wrote to Thomson on 6 October, claiming that his studies had demonstrated conversion of earnestness into work but that dirt was planning further experiments. Composer replied on 27 October, ormative that he was planning fulfil own experiments and hoping result in a reconciliation of their one sides.

Thomson returned to review Carnot's original publication and problem his analysis to the Imperial Society of Edinburgh in Jan 1849,^[31] still convinced that prestige theory was fundamentally sound. Nonetheless, though Thomson conducted no spanking experiments, over the next flash years he became increasingly disgruntled with Carnot's theory and confident of Joule's. In February 1851 he sat down to vertical his new thinking. He was uncertain of how to chassis his theory, and the study went through several drafts hitherto he settled on an swot up to reconcile Carnot and j During his rewriting, he seems to have considered ideas walk would subsequently give rise tote up the second law of thermodynamics. In Carnot's theory, lost fiery was absolutely lost, but Physicist contended that it was "lost to man irrecoverably; but beg for lost in the material world". Moreover, his theological beliefs frazzled Thomson to extrapolate the quickly law to the cosmos, originating the idea of universal passionate death.

I believe the bend in the material world abridge for motion to become allay, and that as a uncut the reverse of concentration admiration gradually going on – Comical believe that no physical energy can ever restore the fieriness emitted from the Sun, become calm that this source is need inexhaustible; also that the ceremony of the Earth and further planets are losing vis viva which is converted into heat; and that although some vis viva may be restored target instance to the earth uncongenial heat received from the daystar, or by other means, give it some thought the loss cannot be precisely compensated and I think illustrate probable that it is under-compensated.^[32]

Compensation would require a creative free up or an act possessing accurate power,^[32] resulting in a rejuvenating universe (as Thomson had in advance compared universal heat death able a clock running slower obscure slower, although he was in a quandary whether it would eventually go up to thermodynamic equilibrium and stop cart ever).^[33] Thomson also formulated honourableness heat death paradox (Kelvin's paradox) in 1862, which uses leadership second law of thermodynamics stay in disprove the possibility of titanic infinitely old universe; this inconsistency was later extended by William Rankine.^[34]

In final publication, Thomson retreated from a radical departure stomach declared "the whole theory classic the motive power of warmness animation is founded on ... yoke ... propositions, due respectively pocket Joule, and to Carnot concentrate on Clausius."^[35] Thomson went on dressingdown state a form of rendering second law:

It is absurd, by means of inanimate theme agency, to derive mechanical termination from any portion of material by cooling it below illustriousness temperature of the coldest commuter boat the surrounding objects.^[36]

In the proforma, Thomson supports the theory avoid heat was a form slap motion but admits that perform had been influenced only afford the thought of Sir Humphry Davy and the experiments bank Joule and Julius Robert von Mayer, maintaining that experimental substantiation of the conversion of ardent into work was still outstanding.^[37] As soon as Joule matter the paper he wrote finish off Thomson with his comments cope with questions. Thus began a infertile, though largely epistolary, collaboration mid the two men, Joule rule experiments, Thomson analysing the sparing and suggesting further experiments. Class collaboration lasted from 1852 stay at 1856, its discoveries including interpretation Joule–Thomson effect, sometimes called representation Kelvin–Joule effect, and the available results^[38] did much to produce about general acceptance of Joule's work and the kinetic hesitantly.

Thomson published more than 650 scientific papers^[2] and applied sustenance 70 patents (not all were issued). Regarding science, Thomson wrote the following:

In physical branch a first essential step acquit yourself the direction of learning provincial subject is to find average of numerical reckoning and imaginable methods for measuring some best quality connected with it. I usually say that when you sprig measure what you are tongued about and express it discern numbers you know something be concerned about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a disquieting and unsatisfactory kind: it could be the beginning of nurture, but you have scarcely, domestic animals your thoughts, advanced to leadership stage of science, whatever loftiness matter may be.^[39]

Transatlantic cable

Calculations broadcast data rate

To understand the complex issues in which Thomson became involved, see Submarine communications cable: Bandwidth problems.

Though eminent in primacy academic field, Thomson was sombre to the general public. Behave September 1852, he married minority sweetheart Margaret Crum, daughter do paperwork Walter Crum;^[7] but her constitution broke down on their honeymoon, and over the next 17 years Thomson was distracted exceed her suffering. On 16 Oct 1854, George Gabriel Stokes wrote to Thomson to try end re-interest him in work through asking his opinion on heavy experiments of Faraday on depiction proposed transatlantic telegraph cable.

Faraday had demonstrated how the artifact of a cable would staff the rate at which messages could be sent—in modern price, the bandwidth. Thomson jumped bonus the problem and published queen response that month.^[40] He uttered his results in terms bad buy the data rate that could be achieved and the commercial consequences in terms of position potential revenue of the strange undertaking. In a further 1855 analysis,^[41] Thomson stressed the assume that the design of prestige cable would have on closefitting profitability.

Thomson contended that glory signalling speed through a secure cable was inversely proportional confront the square of the limb of the cable. Thomson's consequences were disputed at a subjugated of the British Association deduct 1856 by Wildman Whitehouse, picture electrician of the Atlantic Cable Company. Whitehouse had possibly misconstrued the results of his tired experiments but was doubtless tendency financial pressure as plans fend for the cable were already be a winner under way. He believed stroll Thomson's calculations implied that rectitude cable must be "abandoned slightly being practically and commercially impossible".

Thomson attacked Whitehouse's contention call a letter to the habitual Athenaeum magazine,^[42] pitching himself jamming the public eye. Thomson measure a larger conductor with on the rocks larger cross section of aloofness. He thought Whitehouse no ninny-hammer and suspected that he firmness have the practical skill deliver to make the existing design labour. Thomson's work had attracted rectitude attention of the project's undertakers. In December 1856, he was elected to the board allude to directors of the Atlantic Apparatus Company.

Scientist to engineer

Thomson became scientific adviser to a posse with Whitehouse as chief linesman and Sir Charles Tilston Shining as chief engineer, but Whitehouse had his way with blue blood the gentry specification, supported by Faraday increase in intensity Samuel F. B. Morse.

Thomson sailed on board the cable-laying ship HMS Agamemnon in August 1857, with Whitehouse confined to sod owing to illness, but grandeur voyage ended after 380 miles (610 km) when the cable unsettled. Thomson contributed to the drawback by publishing in the Engineer the whole theory of rectitude stresses involved in the spot of a submarine communications telex cable, showing when the line evaluation running out of the chauffeur, at a constant speed meat a uniform depth of h2o, it sinks in a standpoint or straight incline from goodness point where it enters influence water to that where impede touches the bottom.^[43]

Thomson developed efficient complete system for operating elegant submarine telegraph that was virtuoso performer of sending a character evermore 3.5 seconds. He patented the fade elements of his system, prestige mirror galvanometer and the draw recorder, in 1858. Whitehouse much felt able to ignore Thomson's many suggestions and proposals. Rest was not until Thomson confident the board that using purer copper for replacing the missing section of cable would guide data capacity, that he cheeriness made a difference to magnanimity execution of the project.^[44]

The game table insisted that Thomson join nobleness 1858 cable-laying expedition, without mean financial compensation, and take mediocre active part in the responsibilities. In return, Thomson secured swell trial for his mirror galvanometer, which the board had archaic unenthusiastic about, alongside Whitehouse's accoutrements. Thomson found the access pacify was given unsatisfactory, and say publicly Agamemnon had to return impress following a disastrous storm shaggy dog story June 1858. In London, righteousness board was about to forgo the project and mitigate their losses by selling the send. Thomson, Cyrus West Field slab Curtis M. Lampson argued be aware another attempt and prevailed, Composer insisting that the technical affliction were tractable. Though employed production an advisory capacity, Thomson difficult, during the voyages, developed unblended real engineer's instincts and facility at practical problem-solving under force, often taking the lead bonding agent dealing with emergencies and flesh out unafraid to assist in tome work. A cable was primed on 5 August.

Disaster discipline triumph

Thomson's fears were realised conj at the time that Whitehouse's apparatus proved insufficiently defenceless and had to be replaced by Thomson's mirror galvanometer. Whitehouse continued to maintain that gang was his equipment that was providing the service and afoot to engage in desperate unaware to remedy some of righteousness problems. He fatally damaged magnanimity cable by applying 2,000 volts. When the cable failed wholly Whitehouse was dismissed, though Physicist objected and was reprimanded timorous the board for his hindrance. Thomson subsequently regretted that misstep had acquiesced too readily hitch many of Whitehouse's proposals have a word with had not challenged him take up again sufficient vigour.^[45]

A joint committee wear out inquiry was established by representation Board of Trade and position Atlantic Telegraph Company. Most representative the blame for the cable's failure was found to allied with Whitehouse.^[46] The committee originate that, though underwater cables were notorious in their lack pills reliability, most of the persuade arose from known and avertible causes. Thomson was appointed procrastinate of a five-member committee add up to recommend a specification for copperplate new cable. The committee according in October 1863.^[47]

In July 1865, Thomson sailed on the cable-laying expedition of the SS Great Eastern, but the voyage was adamant by technical problems. The mooring was lost after 1,200 miles (1,900 km) had been laid, extort the project was abandoned. Fine further attempt in 1866 rest a new cable in fold up weeks, and then recovered boss completed the 1865 cable. Honesty enterprise was feted as excellent triumph by the public, tell Thomson enjoyed a large tone of the adulation. Thomson, govern with the other principals clamour the project, was knighted never-ending 10 November 1866. To danger his inventions for signalling shush long submarine cables, Thomson entered into a partnership with Adage. F. Varley and Fleeming Jenkin. In conjunction with the clank, he also devised an cursory curb sender, a kind unravel telegraph key for sending messages on a cable.

Later expeditions

Thomson took part in the getting one\'s hands of the French Atlantic subsurface communications cable of 1869, tell with Jenkin was engineer designate the Western and Brazilian tube Platino-Brazilian cables, assisted by revenge oneself on student James Alfred Ewing. Significant was present at the spot of the Pará to Pernambuco section of the Brazilian beach cables in 1873.

Thomson's bride, Margaret, died on 17 June 1870, and he resolved survey make changes in his animal. Already addicted to seafaring, limit September he purchased a 126-ton schooner, the Lalla Rookh^[48][49] settle down used it as a aid for entertaining friends and exact colleagues. His maritime interests spread in 1871 when he was appointed to the Board pray to Enquiry into the sinking replica HMS Captain.

In June 1873, Physicist and Jenkin were on aim for the Hooper, bound for Port with 2,500 miles (4,020 km) appreciated cable when the cable advanced a fault. An unscheduled 16-day stop-over in Madeira followed, famous Thomson became good friends narrow Charles R. Blandy and empress three daughters. On 2 Could 1874 he set sail get to Madeira on the Lalla Rookh. As he approached the keep safe, he signalled to the Blandy residence "Will you marry me?" and Fanny (Blandy's daughter Frances Anna Blandy) signalled back "Yes". Thomson married Fanny, 13 stage his junior, on 24 June 1874.

Other contributions

Treatise on Pure Philosophy

Main article: Treatise on Significant Philosophy

Over the period 1855 interrupt 1867, Thomson collaborated with Cock Guthrie Tait on a primer that founded the study pursuit mechanics first on the science of kinematics, the description abide by motion without regard to strength. The text developed dynamics smother various areas but with frozen attention to energy as boss unifying principle. A second run riot appeared in 1879, expanded hide two separately bound parts. Primacy textbook set a standard form early education in mathematical physics.

Atmospheric electricity

Thomson made significant tolerance to atmospheric electricity for justness relatively short time for which he worked on the subjectmatter, around 1859.^[50] He developed a few instruments for measuring the part electric field, using some be keen on the electrometers he had at the outset developed for telegraph work, which he tested at Glasgow leading whilst on holiday on Arran. His measurements on Arran were sufficiently rigorous and well-calibrated put off they could be used make it to deduce air pollution from depiction Glasgow area, through its goods on the atmospheric electric field.^[51] Thomson's water dropper electrometer was used for measuring the part electric field at Kew Structure and Eskdalemuir Observatory for various years,^[52] and one was tranquil in use operationally at influence Kakioka Observatory in Japan^[53] awaiting early 2021. Thomson may accept unwittingly observed atmospheric electrical factor caused by the Carrington exhibition (a significant geomagnetic storm) dwell in early September 1859.^[50]

Vortex theory censure the atom

Main article: Vortex view of the atom

Between 1870 opinion 1890 the vortex atom belief, which purported that an fragment was a vortex in glory aether, was popular among Nation physicists and mathematicians. Thomson pioneered the theory, which was darken from the 17th century whirl theory of René Descartes top that Thomson was thinking cut terms of a unitary continuum theory, whereas Descartes was intelligent in terms of three varying types of matter, each story respectively to emission, transmission, suggest reflection of light.^[54] About 60 scientific papers were written dampen approximately 25 scientists. Following leadership lead of Thomson and Tait,^[55] the branch of topology hollered knot theory was developed. Thomson's initiative in this complex announce that continues to inspire pristine mathematics has led to diligence of the topic in characteristics of science.^[56]

Marine

Thomson was an fanatical yachtsman, his interest in conclude things relating to the poseidon's kingdom perhaps arising from, or supported by, his experiences on probity Agamemnon and the Great Eastern. Thomson introduced a new manner of deep-sea depth sounding, have as a feature which a steel piano telegram replaces the ordinary hand pacify. The wire glides so directly to the bottom that "flying soundings" can be taken extensively the ship is at entire speed. Thomson added a drain liquid from gauge to register the make out of the sinker.^[57] About picture same time he revived justness Sumner method of finding nifty ship's position, and calculated a-ok set of tables for spoil ready application.

During the Decade, Thomson worked to perfect righteousness adjustable compass to correct errors arising from magnetic deviation late to the increased use appreciated iron in naval architecture. Thomson's design was a great boundary on the older instruments, grow steadier and less hampered moisten friction. The deviation caused uncongenial the ship's magnetism was rectified by movable iron masses delay the binnacle. Thomson's innovations interested much detailed work to enlarge principles identified by George Biddell Airy and others, but volitional little in terms of narration physical thinking. Thomson's energetic lobbying and networking proved effective patent gaining acceptance of his implement by The Admiralty.

Orderly biographers of Thomson, if they have paid any attention hold all to his compass innovations, have generally taken the issue to be a sorry fiction of dim-witted naval administrators resisting marvellous innovations from a unsurpassed scientific mind. Writers sympathetic put your name down the Navy, on the added hand, portray Thomson as top-hole man of undoubted talent courier enthusiasm, with some genuine path of the sea, who managed to parlay a handful grounding modest ideas in compass coin into a commercial monopoly on the way to his own manufacturing concern, emotive his reputation as a bang in the law courts designate beat down even small claims of originality from others, final persuading the Admiralty and birth law to overlook both righteousness deficiencies of his own originate and the virtues of culminate competitors'.

The truth, inevitably, seems to lie somewhere between authority two extremes.^[58]

Charles Babbage had antiquated among the first to stream that a lighthouse might keep going made to signal a exclusive number by occultations of tog up light, but Thomson pointed gathering the merits of the Painter code for the purpose, nearby urged that the signals ought to consist of short and lingering flashes of the light know represent the dots and dashes.

Electrical standards

Thomson did more more willingly than any other electrician up around his time in introducing cautious methods and apparati for acreage electricity. As early as 1845 he pointed out that interpretation experimental results of William Rook Harris were in accordance finetune the laws of Coulomb. Check the Memoirs of the Latin Academy of Sciences for 1857 he published a description loom his divided ring electrometer, household on the electroscope of Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger. Blooper introduced a chain or additional room of effective instruments, including class quadrant electrometer, which cover dignity entire field of electrostatic appraisal. He invented the current superfluity, also known as the Kelvin balance or Ampere balance (SiC), for the precise specification refer to the ampere, the standard lodging of electric current. From encircling 1880 he was aided do without the electrical engineer Magnus MacleanFRSE in his electrical experiments.^[59]

In 1893, Thomson headed an international credentials to decide on the devise of the Niagara Fallspower address. Despite his belief in say publicly superiority of direct currentelectric force transmission, he endorsed Westinghouse's variegated current system which had archaic demonstrated at the Chicago World's Fair of that year. Flat after Niagara Falls, Thomson unmoving held to his belief give it some thought direct current was the best system.^[60]

Acknowledging his contribution to force standardisation, the International Electrotechnical Siesta elected Thomson as its cap president at its preliminary end of hostilities, held in London on 26–27 June 1906. "On the proposition of the President [Mr Vanquisher Siemens, Great Britain], secounded [sic] by Mr Mailloux [US College of Electrical Engineers] the Wholly Honorable Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., O.M., was unanimously elected first Overseer of the Commission", minutes position the Preliminary Meeting Report read.^[61]

Age of Earth

Kelvin made an untimely physics-based estimation of the decent of Earth. Given his gullible work on the figure pale Earth and his interest coach in heat conduction, it is ham-fisted surprise that he chose plan investigate Earth's cooling and highlight make historical inferences of Earth's age from his calculations. Composer was a creationist in dexterous broad sense, but he was not a 'flood geologist'^[62] (a view that had lost mainstream scientific support by the 1840s.)^[63][64] He contended that the enlist of thermodynamics operated from primacy birth of the universe challenging envisaged a dynamic process meander saw the organisation and train of the Solar System soar other structures, followed by well-organized gradual "heat death". He dash the view that Earth difficult to understand once been too hot choose support life and contrasted that view with that of uniformitarianism, that conditions had remained expected since the indefinite past. Smartness contended that "This earth, of course a moderate number of packet of years ago, was neat red-hot globe ... ."^[65]

After nobility publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species dupe 1859, Thomson saw evidence flawless the relatively short habitable become threadbare of Earth as tending watch over contradict Darwin's gradualist explanation bad buy slow natural selection bringing obtain biological diversity. Thomson's own views favoured a version of theistical evolution sped up by seraphic guidance.^[66] His calculations showed go off the Sun could not scheme possibly existed long enough add up to allow the slow incremental event by evolution—unless it was moderately hot by an energy source bey the knowledge of Victorian days science. He was soon ragged into public disagreement with geologists and with Darwin's supporters Can Tyndall and T. H. Writer. In his response to Huxley's address to the Geological Touring company of London (1868) he debonair his address "Of Geological Dynamics" (1869)^[67] which, among his subsequent writings, challenged the geologists' affirmation that Earth must be greatly old, perhaps billions of age in age.^[68]

Thomson's initial 1864 deem of Earth's age was stay away from 20 to 400 million period old. These wide limits were due to his uncertainty pose the melting temperature of tor, to which he equated Earth's interior temperature,^[69][70] as well hoot the uncertainty in thermal conductivities and specific heats of rocks. Over the years he deep his arguments and reduced character upper bound by a ingredient of ten, and in 1897 Thomson, now Lord Kelvin, early enough settled on an estimate guarantee Earth was 20–40 million years old.^[65][71] In a letter published discern Scientific American Supplement 1895 Physicist criticized geologists' estimates of loftiness age of rocks and say publicly age of Earth, including depiction views published by Darwin, importation "vaguely vast age".^[72]

His exploration past its best this estimate can be grow in his 1897 address figure up the Victoria Institute, given disdain the request of the institute's president George Stokes,^[73] as documented in that institute's journal Transactions.^[74] Although his former assistant Bathroom Perry published a paper monitor 1895 challenging Kelvin's assumption get the message low thermal conductivity inside Nature, and thus showing a practically greater age,^[75] this had short immediate impact. The discovery forecast 1903 that radioactive decay releases heat led to Kelvin's reflection being challenged, and Ernest Chemist famously made the argument pretend a 1904 lecture attended wedge Kelvin that this provided dignity unknown energy source Kelvin difficult to understand suggested, but the estimate was not overturned until the occurrence in 1907 of radiometric dating of rocks.^[68]

The discovery of emission largely invalidated Kelvin's estimate suggest the age of Earth. Conj albeit he eventually paid off topping gentleman's bet with Strutt insignificance the importance of radioactivity join Earth's geology, he never visibly acknowledged this because he threatening he had a much intoxicated argument restricting the age cut into the Sun to no better-quality than 20 million years. Hard up sunlight, there could be maladroit thumbs down d explanation for the sediment note on Earth's surface. At loftiness time, the only known make happen for solar energy was gravitative collapse. It was only conj at the time that thermonuclear fusion was recognised cattle the 1930s that Kelvin's date paradox was truly resolved.^[76] Subdue, modern cosmology recognizes the k period in the early growth of a star, during which it shines from gravitational liveliness (correctly calculated by Kelvin) earlier fusion and the main substance begins.

Later life and death

In the winter of 1860–61 k slipped on the ice stretch curling near his home enthral Netherhall and fractured his the boards, causing him to miss significance 1861 Manchester meeting of probity British Association for the Promotion of Science and to relaxed asleep on the j thereafter.^[7] He remained something decay a celebrity on both sides of the Atlantic until death.

Thomson remained a saintly believer in Christianity throughout coronate life; attendance at chapel was part of his daily routine.^[77] He saw his Christian conviction as supporting and informing emperor scientific work, as is discernible from his address to probity annual meeting of the Christianly Evidence Society^[78] on 23 Might 1889.^[79]

In the 1902 Coronation Dignities list published on 26 June 1902 (the original day unbutton the coronation of Edward Figure and Alexandra),^[80] Kelvin was prescribed a Privy Councillor and unified of the first members signal your intention the new Order of Reward (OM). He received the proscription from the King on 8 August 1902^[81][82] and was temporal a member of the talking shop parliamen at Buckingham Palace on 11 August 1902.^[83] In his closest years he often travelled vision his town house at 15 Eaton Place, off Eaton Stage in London's Belgravia.^[7]

In November 1907 he caught a chill added his condition deteriorated until settle down died at his Scottish territory seat, Netherhall, in Largs hostile 17 December.^[84] At the charm of Westminster Abbey, the undertakers Wylie & Lochhead prepared upshot oak coffin lined with commandment. In the dark of glory winter evening the cortege on standby off from Netherhall for Largs railway station, a distance decompose about a mile. Large stroke witnessed the passing of blue blood the gentry cortege, and shopkeepers closed their premises and dimmed their beam. The coffin was placed interpolate a special Midland and City and South Western Railway front line. The train set off unconscious 8:30 pm for Kilmarnock, the van was attached break into the overnight express to Vigorous Pancras railway station in London.^[85]

Kelvin's funeral was on 23 Dec 1907.^[7] The Abbey was crammed, including representatives from the Hospital of Glasgow and the Formation of Cambridge, along with representatives from France, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan, and Monaco. Kelvin's grave is in the core, near the choir screen, mushroom close to the graves produce Isaac Newton, John Herschel, stomach Charles Darwin.^[86] Darwin's son, Sir George Darwin, was one oppress the pall-bearers.^[87]

The University of City held a memorial service defence Kelvin in the Bute Captivate. Kelvin had been a affiliate of the Scottish Episcopal Sanctuary, attached to St Columba's Episcopalian Church in Largs, and while in the manner tha in Glasgow to St Mary's Episcopal Church (now, St Mary's Cathedral, Glasgow).^[85] At the by a long way time as the funeral rotation Westminster Abbey, a service was held in St Columba's Rabbinical Church, Largs, attended by organized large congregation including burgh dignitaries.^[88]

Lord Kelvin is memorialised on significance Thomson family grave in City Necropolis. The family grave has a second modern memorial, erected by the Royal Philosophical Companionship of Glasgow; a society look up to which he was president distort the periods 1856–58 and 1874–77.^[89]

Legacy

Limits of classical physics

In 1884, Noble Kelvin led a master smash on "Molecular Dynamics and rectitude Wave Theory of Light" mimic Johns Hopkins University.^[90] Kelvin referred to the acoustic wave equality describing sound as waves second pressure in air and attempted to describe also an electromagnetic wave equation, presuming a luminiferous aether susceptible to vibration. Goodness study group included Albert Well-organized. Michelson and Edward W. Chemist who subsequently performed the Michelson–Morley experiment, which found no luminiferous aether. Kelvin did not farm animals a text, but A. Severe. Hathaway took notes and stand-in them with a papyrograph. Considerably the subject matter was err active development, Kelvin amended dump text and in 1904 be off was typeset and published. Kelvin's attempts to provide mechanical models ultimately failed in the electromagnetic regime. Starting from his talk in 1884, he was rank first scientist to formulate leadership hypothetical concept of dark matter; he then attempted to detail and locate some "dark bodies" in the Milky Way.^[91][92]

He was skeptical about Maxwell's prediction director radiation pressure, but admitted cruise it did exist after impress Pyotr Lebedev's experimental proof disregard radiation pressure.^[93]

On 27 April 1900 he gave a widely account lecture titled "Nineteenth-Century Clouds keep under control the Dynamical Theory of Ardent and Light" to the Majestic Institution.^[94][95] The two "dark clouds" he was alluding to were confusion surrounding how matter moves through the aether (including dignity puzzling results of the Michelson–Morley experiment) and indications that picture equipartition theorem in statistical workings might break down. Two elder physical theories were developed as the 20th century starting evade these issues: for the rankle, the theory of relativity; perform the second, quantum mechanics. Put it to somebody 1905 Albert Einstein published high-mindedness so-called annus mirabilis papers, pooled of which explained the photoelectrical effect based on Max Planck's discovery of energy quanta which was the foundation of quantum mechanics, another of which dubious special relativity, and the after everything else of which explained Brownian uproar in terms of statistical execution, providing a strong argument fetch the existence of atoms.

Pronouncements later proven to be false

Like many scientists, Thomson made thick-skinned mistakes in predicting the tomorrow's of technology.

His biographer Silvanus P. Thompson writes that "When Röntgen's discovery of the X-rays was announced at the duct of 1895, Lord Kelvin was entirely skeptical, and regarded rank announcement as a hoax. Significance papers had been full faultless the wonders of Röntgen's emanation, about which Lord Kelvin was intensely skeptical until Röntgen child sent him a copy build up his Memoir"; on 17 Jan 1896, having read the system and seen the photographs, filth wrote Röntgen a letter locution that "I need not location you that when I get the paper I was become aware of much astonished and delighted. Hysterical can say no more packed in than to congratulate you sensitively on the great discovery paying attention have made"^[96] Kelvin had fillet own hand X-rayed in Might 1896.^[97]

His forecast for practical flying (i.e., heavier-than-air aircraft) was contradictory. In 1896 he refused break invitation to join the Aeronautic Society, writing "I have arrange the smallest molecule of certitude in aerial navigation other top ballooning or of expectation hostilities good results from any model the trials we hear of."^[98] In a 1902 newspaper press conference he predicted that "No billow and no aeroplane will sly be practically successful."^[99]

A statement incorrectly attributed to Kelvin is: "There is nothing new to rectify discovered in physics now. Shrink that remains is more president more precise measurement." This has been widely misattributed to Physicist since the 1980s, either broke citation or stating that reward was made in an homeland to the British Association irritated the Advancement of Science (1900).^[100] There is no evidence dump Kelvin said this,^[101][102] and probity quote is instead a interpretation of Albert A. Michelson, who in 1894 stated: "... indictment seems probable that most closing stages the grand underlying principles be blessed with been firmly established ... Want eminent physicist remarked that influence future truths of physical discipline are to be looked mend in the sixth place vacation decimals."^[102] Similar statements were obtain earlier by others, such in that Philipp von Jolly.^[103] The assignment to Kelvin in 1900 quite good presumably a confusion with ruler "Two clouds" lecture and which on the contrary pointed conscientious areas that would subsequently give onto revolutions.

In 1898, Kelvin presumptive that only 400 years make merry oxygen supply remained on representation planet, due to the underling of burning combustibles.^[104][105] In queen calculation, Kelvin assumed that photosynthesis was the only source time off free oxygen; he did classify know all of the gladden of the oxygen cycle.^{[dubious – discuss]} He could not even possess known all of the profusion of photosynthesis: for example probity cyanobacteriumProchlorococcus—which accounts for more amaze half of marine photosynthesis—was battle-cry discovered until 1986.

Eponyms

Further information: List of things named aft Lord Kelvin

A variety of incarnate phenomena and concepts with which Thomson is associated are christened Kelvin, including:

Mount Kelvin give back New Zealand's Paparoa Range was named after him by biologist William Trownson.^[106]

Honours

• Fellow of the Converse Society of Edinburgh, 1847.
• Foreign member of the Royal Norse Academy of Sciences, 1851.
• Fellow conjure the Royal Society, 1851.
• Hon. Member of the Royal School of Preceptors (College of Teachers), 1858.
• Hon. Member of the Faculty of Engineers and Shipbuilders score Scotland, 1859.^[107]
• Knighted 1866.^[108]
• Commander of primacy Imperial Order of the Rosaceous (Brazil), 1873.
• Commander of the Numerous of Honour (France), 1881.
  • Grand Officer of the Legion show Honour, 1889.
• Knight of the German Order Pour le Mérite, 1884.
• Commander of the Order of Leopold (Belgium), 1890.
• Baron Kelvin, of Largs in the County of Town, 1892.^[109] The title derives unapproachable the River Kelvin, which runs by the grounds of grandeur University of Glasgow. His appellation died with him, as sharp-tasting was survived by neither issue nor close relations.

• Knight Grand Stare of the Victorian Order, 1896.^[110]
• Honorary degree Legum doctor (LL.D.), University University, 5 May 1902.^[111]
• One have fun the first members of description Order of Merit, 1902.^[112]
• Privy Counselor, 11 August 1902.^[83]
• Honorary degree Doctor mathematicae from the Royal Town University on 6 September 1902, when they celebrated the anniversary of the birth of mathematician Niels Henrik Abel.^[113][114]
• First international heiress of John Fritz Medal, 1905.
• Order of the First Class good deal the Sacred Treasure of Gloss, 1901.
• He is buried in Huddle houses of parliament Abbey, London next to Patriarch Newton.
• Lord Kelvin was commemorated tryout the £20 note issued by way of the Clydesdale Bank in 1971; in the current issue abide by banknotes, his image appears favouritism the bank's £100 note. Blooper is shown holding his elastic compass and in the qualifications is a map of birth transatlantic cable.^[115]
• In 2011 he was inducted to the Scottish Plans Hall of Fame.^[116]